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Archive for the ‘Biotechnology’ Category

GENES ARE NOT EXCLUSIVE HUMAN: CAN NOT BE PATENTED

H.K.Goswami

Genes are being cloned and patented which amounts to copyright of human genes, their forms and functions. Many chromosomes have several patented loci and within a decade or so, we shall have entire chromosomes patented. Hereunder this is argued, that the genes “cloned” and patented, are not exclusively human; exact copies of these genes (DNA sequences) are also present in other organisms. This has been aptly demonstrated by now, that human X and Y chromosomes and other chromosomes too, have evolved by sharing and transferring DNA sequences at various stages of evolutionary steps from diversified groups of organisms. Patent for a gene can not amount to patent of that gene present in other organisms; this needs serious review.

Apart from this, the patented gene is a chemical copy/pirated gene of the original gene present in a chromosome. How can a copy of the gene ( man made) in the laboratory lead to patenting of an original gene present in a chromosome ? This may be a violation of legal, scientific, as well as ethical values. Technically, the genes owned in test tubes can not hold patent for the genes / chromosome domains in situ, because these are not exactly the same.

Biologists, ethicists and judges need to form a common platform to discuss on the speedy wave of patenting human genes because the US Patent and Trademark Office had issued patents to corporations, universities, government agencies and nonprofit groups for nearly 20% human genome [ 1]. About 50% of the cancer genes have been patented and to emphasize on facts nearly 15% genes stored in the National Center for Biotechnology Information ‘s database are tagged with at least one patent. To day we are questioning “ how can you patent my genes” and after a decade or so, whole chromosomes and then, human species as an organism [ 2 ] be a patented organism.

All whatever is happening in this kind of scientifically advancing technological race is gradually becoming unethically – scientific. Discoveries can not, but inventions ( man made ) can be patented!. The year 2005 was marked the 25th anniversary of the landmark court decision that opened a floodgate of patenting on both DNA and even whole organism. In certain countries like USA, ethical issues about patenting life have not been taken seriously but these have to generate great concern in many nations. After all how can you patent a gene in a chromosome which is not man made ? [ 3 ]. A gene that has been cloned, is a “chemical photocopy”/ or a pirated copy of the original gene. So a gene in the test tube can be patented but the right for “owning the gene in form and function” of the original gene present inside the cell on account of patenting would be a totally unqualified claim or gross mis interpretation of the scientific discoveries.

The concept of patenting, may hold good for a plant and or animal product whose sale or benefits of which are in public interest and the product to be marketed would need huge monetary investments by the inventor or any manufacturing unit. The product has to be utilized by people and in order to avoid unauthorized duplicacy, patenting of products obtains acceptable restrictions. In this process the inventor or a group of investigators are also recipients of benefits. In other words monetary profits could be distributed among many owners or shared by patent holder. Similarly, patenting gene products also appears justified because then only useful products, enzymes, medicines and many life saving drugs can be produced and sold in the world market by authorized companies. This has been argued that unless they have patent (s) in their favour it would be huge expense with a lot of risk involved to install a big manufacturing unit because others would copy down soon depriving the inventor and related beneficiaries from major profits.

Arguments are both in favour as well as against the patenting concept but the greatest worry faces all human beings world over is that we are stretching these approaches too far. In this context, American courts have given a dictum “Any thing man made can be patented” [ 1 ] but we have started interpreting or claiming “patenting genes in chromosomes”. Furthermore those who have obtained patents may claim that the candidate gene in the chromosome ( gene locus )has also been patented. This brings unhappy situation for all human beings. For example, a gene that makes the protein that the hepatitis A virus uses to attach to cells, has been patented by US Deptt of health; similarly a gene that plays a key role in spinal cord development is owned by Harvard University group.

The ethics of the Judicial Judgment ( order ) was to enhance the ingenuity of human mind but not to claim the copy rights on different parts and functions of human body. Above all is the argument that the genes in the “test tube”( cloned chemical sequences ) are not exactly the same as is being patented. Cloned genes are not exactly present on a chromosome [3 ]. Furthermore, the“ gene-environ” in a chromosome is different from the copy of the gene patented. This amounts to a serious legal blunder!. Not on ethical values, but on very sound judicial grounds a second thought be given and debated as to how can a cloned and patented gene in the laboratory own a copy right for the original gene in a chromosome?.

Additionally, hereunder, we also examine that a cloned gene (specific DNA sequence ) from human genome is also present in various other related and far more distinct organisms [4 ] thereby offering non- ending complications of biological nature.

A large number of DNA sequences are being reported to have been conserved in various divergent animal phyla, many of the genes retaining the same function[ 5 ] in humans. There are also a large number of DNA sequences known to have strict homology, but for quite different functions. For example in Drosophila melanogaster patched mutations are known to cause faulty winged veins and the human version of this PTC gene results in defective ribs as well as skin cancer. This gene is mapped on the long arm of human chromosome 9, very near the site where genetic linkage studies have shown the presence of gene for basal cell nevus syndrome.

Another such example where a normal gene in fruit fly causes cancer in other organisms is wntl gene which in fruit fly, functions as wingless gene, while it causes mammary tumour in human on becoming overactive. Also a human GLI gene which was discovered as an oncogene in a rare human brain tumour is now known to be the counterpart of the Cubitus interruptus gene of the fly [6 ]. Lately, this is becoming very clear that humans other mammals and also other organism have their own versions of genes found in many organisms. For example, vertebrate homologues of hh and ptc have been identified in mice, chicken and Zebra fish. In humans these genes have important roles in organizing many tissues including neural tube, skeleton, limbs, cranofacial structures and skin. We have strong evidences to assume that conserved sequences can be found in diversified and apparently unrelated phyla but the functions performed in that organism by that very gene need not be the same.

Recently,our results on genomic DNA sequences from a lower vascular plant taxon , Isoetes pantii , compared with human genomic DNA by NCBI Blast Gene Bank public data base have opened up a new line of thinking ( 4, and earlier ). The most remarkable point of argument is that a DNA sequence/ stretch of a gene may be, very rarely though, found in a totally unrelated species without any evolutionary significance . The important point of argument is that a DNA stretch of a gene may be, very rarely though, found in a totally unrelated species without any evolutionary significance. Indisputably this is a truthful legacy of evolution with no obligation on lineages/ relationships.

This can be emphasized here that higher percentage of concordance in the DNA sequences of a few genes among some plants and animals including man, may account for geological persistence of certain DNA stretches/versions of genes (? conserved through billions of years probably due to random distribution ). These DNA sequences must have been lodged as integral part of subgene pools much before the divergence of plants and animals ( in the Pre- Cambrian to Cambrian 500 to 600 billion yrs ago; [ 7].

The genomes are elastic from evolutionary point of view and have phylogenetically traveled through millions of years and spread over among diversified organisms world over at all times since the advent of life on the earth. Certainly therefore, a gene, present in one organism at one chromosome domain may be present for the different or related similar function at a different domain in another organism, and thus in no way is an exclusive, “bonafide resident” within/ of that organism.

To be very precise and more pragmatic, even one or more human chromosomes, for instance, human Y chromosome has been tailored in evolution from tit bits of several sequences and congregated in to one unit chromosome representing according to David Page and his colleagues [8] a mosaic of DNA sequences bearing homology to many organisms. This also implies, as also very explicitly demonstrated by modern molecular biological techniques that a gene functions in one way in one organism and does have different function in another with differences in positions at different chromosomes [9 ] Also, a single gene may have many functions [10], pleiotropic in nature. Indisputedly, neither a gene nor any gene function can be patented. Because, a human gene specifically is not “exclusive human” but belongs to many organisms. The multiple patenting is improbable and unscientific.

The worry is for tomorrow; someone having patented, say “ gene A” present in Drosophila or an aquatic weed, is also present in humans and performs function of producing a remedial protein, would claim “property rights on three different products” because he or she has cloned and patented “ man made” chemical copy of the gene present in chromosomes of three different organisms.

Therefore, cloned genes patented in the test tube do not account for genes in situ . Practically, no gene or its function and or any chromosomal domain can be patented; only the product of a gene at a specific point of origin and locus can be and should be patented subject to “use in public interest”.

This article covers a topic that has recently moved to center stage–at least it seems that way. If you’ve been thinking you need to know more about it, here’s your opportunity.

Since the advent of the internet and more powerful personal computers, many stock players have been looking for the best stock trading software that the market can offer. After all, what a better way to analyze the market with an online stock trading software? Capable of calculating all the important indexes and show you, in a single screen and at full color, which shares should you be considering. But, are they worth your time and money?

Let’s dig in to find more.

Stock Trading Software

Right now, there are more than 200 hundred stock exchange markets in Earth. These organizations trade the shares of thousands of companies around the planet. Ergo, they produce huge quantities of information. If you really want to be connected to the world, how are you going to master all this data?

If you try to do it, you will find that it is an impossible task. There are too many variables to consider, and the human mind isn’t prepared for that level of information. The only way to do it is with a online stock trading software. Today, personal computers have enough power for processing these amounts of information. So, for the first time in history, people can look at stock markets of any part of the world and analyze it’s movements.

Benefits Of Stock Trading Software,/b>

The main benefit is that you are going to save enormous amounts of time. You will not have to spend hours behind the Yahoo or Google stock pages, or with the newspaper, interpreting the data. A stock trading software will download all the information that you need and in no time you will find yourself with all the processed data that you require for making the right choice.

The second benefit is that it will show you cold numbers. That means that you won’t be a victim of your emotions. We are humans, and there is no way in which we can detach our emotions from our decisions. Since the stock trading software package doesn’t have emotions, it will tell you nothing but the truth.

The final benefit is that you will be able to broaden your portfolio, making it more secure. That way, if the stock market of a determined country falls down, you won’t be very affected. With the best stock trading software you can invest in fishmeal at Chile, in mining at Peru, in biotechnology at China and even software companies at Korea (a very interesting market considering the amount of people that play Massively-Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games).

So far, we’ve uncovered some interesting facts about stock trading software, stock trading robot, stock, automatic buying selling stock, stock automation. You may decide that the following information is even more interesting.

Tips For Choosing The Best Stock Trading Software

The most important tip for choosing the best software stock trading package is that you feel comfortable with it. There isn’t something more frustrating than having to use a software that you don’t like. If that is the case, sooner or later you will uninstall it, feeling that you have paid unnecessary money for a lemon.

Do not place yourself into that position. Use the trial-periods offered by the different stock market trading software companies. It is the only way in which you are going to find out if there is a good chemistry between you and the product. After all, a practical software stock trading package is what you should be looking for.

The second tip is to look for a company that has been some time in the market. This is a proof that they offer a good product and that you will receive support for your acquisition. There are many stock and trading software companies that come and go, specially those that make free stock trading software.

Finally, do not trust stock trading software that promises you to make you rich, or that it can predict the future movements of stock. If that really was the case, would you sell it at a copy instead of using it for making yourself filthy rich? This kind of programs are nothing but a scam so do not spend your time with them.

Remember that a stock trading software isn’t the only thing that you need for making yourself rich. These programs are tools, not decision makers. It is you, the investor, the one who has to interpret that information and decide if it is worth using it or not. After all, the computer can’t known how much is going to affect a company to have a backlog, or if their operations are on the brink of being nationalized by a foreign country.

You can’t predict when knowing something extra about stock trading software, stock trading robot, stock, automatic buying selling stock, stock automation will come in handy. If you learned anything new about stock trading software, stock trading robot, stock, automatic buying selling stock, stock automation in this article, you should file the article where you can find it again.

Have you read about this recently? In the late spring of 2008, another investigative “tool” landed on Mars. Scientists hoped that by putting this new device on Mars, they could expand their search for pure water, somewhere on the red planet. Scientific theory indicated that life on earth began when a cell formed in water.

Scientists can not say whether or not that first cell formed in pure water. It might have appeared in a drop of sea water. Still, scientists recognize the fact that no human body can remain healthy, if it is denied access to clean water.

Each of the vital, life-giving functions performed by the human body depends on the availability of water. The cells that carry-out those functions contain water; they are also surrounded by a watery “cushion.” A body that does not receive an adequate amount of pure water can not perform effectively. The body’s failed performance then causes ill health.

In southern California, experts in water conservation have initiated a new campaign, a campaign focused on saving the region’s limited supply of pure water. On Wednesday, June 11, 2008, one of the men directing that campaign spoke to a TV reporter. He began the interview by stating, “We need water.”

Following the launch of that campaign, southern Californians can expect to hear more about how they can reduce the amount of water they use each day. Water conservation includes efforts to identify and repair leaky faucets. Water conservation depends on a willingness by the public to reduce the amount of water used in dish washers and other electrical appliances.

In the area of the Los Angeles Airport, government authorities have called for the use of recycled water in any plumbing that’s used to water plants growing in public areas. That policy provides industries in the area with more clean water. The manufacturing companies over by the Airport can use that clean water.

One biotechnology company located near the Airport can not use even the purest water in all of its labs. Some of the labs must carry-out further purification of what most would view as clean water. The molecular biology lab must remove chemicals called DNase and RNase from the water. The laboratory that studies infectious diseases must take the time to sterilize any of the water that will be used in the microbiological or tissue culture dishes.

Meanwhile, the homes located close to the Airport have residents who want to drink pure water. Those homeowners can not ignore the fact that recycled water has seeped into the ground in that neighborhood. Those homeowners have reason to examine the available means for a small-scale purification of water.
 
Keeping in mind their ultimate goal-ready access by friends and family to clean, pure, great-tasting water, some homeowners have noticed the information on one particular water filtration system. That system uses activated carbon filters with ion exchange and micron filtration.

Homeowners do not need to worry about DNase or RNase in the water. Homeowners do not rely on the availability of sterile water. Homeowners simply want to have pure water. Growing numbers of homeowners have chosen a water filtration system that can provide them with clean water.

Mounting evidence indicates that the homeowners who chose one popular filtration system made more than just a wise choice; they also made the safest choice.